In the book "100 Questions and Answers about Osteoporosis and Osteopenia," Ivy Alexander and Karla Knight describe osteopenia, much like osteoporosis, as an imbalance between bone degeneration and bone development in favor of degeneration. Alexander and Knight explain that osteopenia is distinct from osteoporosis by the merit of its lesser intensity. Accordingly, fractures are more likely than usual with osteopenia, but not as likely as with osteoporosis.
Underdevelopment
According to Alexander and Knight in "100 Questions and Answers about Osteoporosis and Osteopenia," resistive exercise promotes strong bones. Resistive exercise includes weightlifting, pushups, biking and swimming. Consequently, a regular resistive exercise regimen accompanied with vitamin D as well as calcium supplements can circumvent osteopenia. In fact, children that do not exercise enough may exhibit a dearth of bone mass upon maturation, which can result in an osteopenia diagnosis. Moreover, those who develop osteopenia due to underdevelopment during childhood and young adulthood are harder to treat following the onset of osteopenia or osteoporosis.
Osteomalacia
Jacques Lorrain defines osteomalacia as a disorder by which the body is unable to complete the process of forming new bone material due to the incapacity to deposit inorganic mineral in an organic matrix in her book "Comprehensive Management of Menopause." Lorrain states that this condition results in excess osteoid, known as osteomalacia, which leads to osteopenia and osteoporosis. This process begins with malabsorption of vitamin D in the intestines. Ergo, inflammatory bowel disease is a likely source. Lorrian states that another frequent cause of vitamin D malabsorption is anticonvulsant drugs, which cause abnormal metabolism. Antacid drug abuse causes similar issues with the metabolism of phosphates, resulting in the same course beginning with osteomalacia and resulting in osteopenia or osteoporosis.
Hyperthyroidism/Hyperparathyroidism
Lorrain indicates that hyperthyroidism leads to an increase in bone formation and deformation, with the latter exceeding the prior. Lorrain explains that this causes an imbalance of bone calcium known as hypercalcemia, which leads to osteopenia. Lorrain distinguishes hyperparathyroidism from hyperthyroidism because it has multifarious sources. Lorrain asserts that these sources could be a parathyroid adenoma or calcium and vitamin D deficiencies. According to Lorrain, patients with hyperparathyroidism often exhibit many other health complications, including nephrocalcinosis, glycosuria, aminoaciduria, chondrocalcinosis, kidney stones and vertebral fractures. In "Turek's Orthopaedics," Stuart Weinstein and Joseph Buckwalter indicate that vertebral fractures require consistent treatment to prevent progressive pain and neurological damage.
References
- "Comprehensive Management of Menopause"; Jacques Lorrain; 1994
- "Turek's Orthopaedics: Principles and Their Application"; Stuart L. Weinstein and Joseph A. Buckwalter
- "100 Questions and Answers about Osteoporosis and Osteopenia"; Ivy M. Alexander and Karla A. Knight; 2009
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